A Seminar on Freedom:

Individualism in Islam

 Theory & Practice

 (In the context of Political Philosophy)

Presented by Ahmad Reza Taheri

In the Department of Philosophy, University of Pune

I am very grateful to professor Deshpandeh, the Head of Philosophy Department, to professor Belka, and to all those who organized this seminar. I’m going to talk about “Individualism in Islam: theory & practice: in the context of political philosophy.”  In brief, I will touch upon several issues and our concentration would be on women’s individuality in Islam.

Well, in the ancient and medieval periods, the concept of liberty ⁽¹⁾ in its present form was missing. Greek thinkers such as Socrates and Plato refused to accept the notion of individual liberty against society or state. Socrates refused to run away from prison and readily drank the hemlock because he believed that freedom lies in the obedience to the laws of the state or society. ⁽²⁾

In Islam, like any other institution, human being enjoys a limited form of freedom, in other words, human being cannot enjoy its individuality, of course, an individuality which, is perceived by modern western philosophy, and rather individuality is a prisoner of faith in Allah. Since its inception, Islam did not undergo necessary reforms to promote the individuality of human beings, as the concept of individualism is understood in political philosophy. The major reason behind this reality can be found in the faith of Muslims who believe that Islam as a perfect religion cannot be reformed since the ultimate sovereign has gifted it to the humanity for the sake of humanity. Therefore, if the teachings given by Quran would be interpreted and considered within the context of political philosophy, one may find no enough room for the philosophy of individualism, however, that is not to say that Islam does not favor individualism.

Much of the Islamic law has been derived from Quran, the holy book for Muslims, which is the primary source of authority, law and identity for Islam. Quran calls for human beings to acknowledge Allah’s (God) sovereignty over their lives and invites them to submit to His will. In fact, the word Islam (in Arabic language) means “surrender” or “submission”— submission to the will of Allah. In the same manner, a follower of Islam is called a Muslim, which in Arabic means “one who surrenders to Allah.”  The very notion implies that human being unconditionally has to submit itself to the will of Allah who is the ultimate sovereign, that is to say, the moment you enter into Islam as a Muslim you have to follow all those codes, which have been prescribed by Quran. Many Muslim scholars believe, according to Islam, sovereignty does not belong to any monarch or a class, nor does it rest with the people in general rather sovereignty belongs to Allah…” ⁽³⁾ Dr. Kim R. Holmes, remarks that “the individual exists not as a separate being endowed by God or natural law with certain rights, but as a person who has certain obligations to Allah, and that the state and insti­tutions have some role in determining what those obligations are. In the Western experience, the rights and obliga­tions of the individual toward God and the state were worked out through not only different and separate developments of canon and civil law, but also through the emergence of the idea of individual conscience. In other words, in the Western tradition, the idea emerged that the best and probably only authentic way that God could be worshiped was that it was not coerced by the state in any way—you had to have freedom of conscience. This idea devel­oped in both the Protestant and Catholic Reforma­tions, and also certainly in the Enlightenment. But it is not an idea that, at least in this particular form, has great prominence in the Muslim world. I'm (Dr. Holmes) not saying it doesn't exist, but I (Dr. Holmes) am saying that as I (Dr. Holmes) have described it, it is not a common feature of legal, con­stitutional, and political practice. The risk of free will, of course, is that you will choose wrongly.” ⁽⁴⁾

In sura Baghara, Quran gives this liberty to people that there is no compulsion in religion ⁽⁵⁾, but somewhere else in sura Imran, Quran threatens the non-believers for not following what Allah says. For example, Allah says in Quran, “let not the unbelievers think that Our respite to them is good for themselves: We grant them respite that they may grow in their iniquity: but they will have a shameful punishment.” ⁽⁶⁾ Or in another verse, sura Nisa, verse 14, Quran clearly says, “but those who disobey Allah and His Messenger and transgress His limits will be admitted to a Fire, to abide therein: and they shall have a humiliating punishment.” As a matter of fact, these verses give us two different messages, first, people are free to choose Islam or don’t choose Islam; to worship Allah or don’t worship Allah. Second message, however, tells us if they refused to follow what Allah and His messenger command, they have to face dire consequences. Based on such and such Quranic edicts, in a number of Islamic states like Afghanistan, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, etc., if a Muslim converts himself/herself into any other religion and leave Islam, his/her punishment would be death sentence. Few years ago, an Afghani man declared that he has changed his religion (Islam) and wanted to be a Christian. He was detained in Afghanistan and was sentenced to death, but powerful international agencies or personalities like president George W Bush interfered in the matter and facilitated his departure for Italy where he got asylum there.  

Second, the liberal theory of free speech has value because it is seen as a guard against absolutism. However, a completely unrestricted freedom of expression leads to infringement on the belief of others. The nature and extent of the restraints to be imposed and enforced have constituted major problems for state and society. Historically, most of these problems have revolved around the expression of ideas that have been antagonistic to prevailing religious and political, beliefs or institutions. In Islam, Muslims enjoy freedom of speech, however, limits must not be crossed. People do not have freedom to question, criticize, negate, or deny Islam, let alone Muslims. Whatever freedom people have is within the sphere of Islam. In this respect, Quran in sura Haj says, “those who strive to thwart Our revelations, such are rightful owners of the Fire.” Somewhere else in the same sura, Quran says, “those who disbelieve and denied Our revelations, for them will be a shameful doom.” ⁽⁷⁾ Both Salman Rushdi, as well as, the Danish newspaper exercised their freedom of speech, which offended many Muslims around the world; making religious leaders like Ayatollah Khomeni call for their executions.

Third, within the context of Quran, man and woman are free and can enjoy liberty so long as the Islamic principles are not violated. Yet, between man and woman, more freedom has been given to men. Such a freedom that exists in Quran does not conform to the principles of individualism.⁽⁸⁾ In the beginning of sura Nisa, Quran vividly declares, “a man can marry to two or three or four women who seem good, but if man fears that he cannot do justice to so many women then one only or a captive who is rightly possessed by him is sufficient.” ⁽⁹⁾ Although, Quran insists that in cases of injustice, man is not allowed to marry more than one woman, the nature of this authorization has paved the way for many Muslim men to practice polygamy without considering the pre-condition. Example can be taken of fanatical minded (Sunni) Muslims all over the world including kings and princes of Saudi Arabia and Pakistani hardliner clerics. Secondly, Quran has referred to ‘captive woman’, as another choice, which is again against the free will of an individual --- captive woman. After all, a captive is a captive. Many Muslim women of today notably the educated ones do not agree with polygamy. In this respect, in a 2004 study of a group of educated Muslim women, majority of them reacted negatively to the practice. ⁽¹⁰⁾

Fourth, another issue, which is of great importance, is divorce. Quran has not empowered women equally, as men are empowered. Sura Baghara of Quran clearly states that if a man had divorced his wife for the third time then she cannot be lawful on to him, unless, she had wedded another husband. And, if the second husband divorced her it would not be a sin for both to come together if they consider that they are able to observe the limits of Allah. ⁽¹¹⁾ This denotes that if such an incident occurs in a woman’s life, and if husband regrets, and both intend to reunite they have no any other choice of their own but to settle the issue according to the Islamic method mentioned above. Of course, it has been interpreted that this rule was made to discourage men from easily using the words of divorce against their wives by knowing that after the third time there will be no way to return to the wife and so encourage men's tolerance and patience. Furthermore, many Muslim scholars believe things for this purpose cannot be finalized so easily. There can be several conditions, such as to ensure whether man while uttering the word divorce three times, was in his senses or not, etc. Whatsoever, the trend unjustly is more or less practiced in many Muslim societies and states especially in the developing world. Women’s right to divorce is often extremely limited compared to that of men. Men can divorce their wives easily, while women face more legal and financial obstacles.

Fifth, Quran has not allowed women to dress according to their own choices, because according to the Islamic law, women have to cover themselves according to the Islamic tradition. The most important Quranic verse relating to Hijab is sura Noor, verse 31, which says, "And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their private parts and not to display their adornment except that which ordinarily appears thereof and to draw their head covers over their chests and not to display their adornment except to their people of close relationship like father, husband, brother, etc. The practice can be observed within the Muslim communities of the world. Surprisingly, many Iranian foreign-based girls, however, dress according to their own desires, wearing non-Islamic dress. Example can be taken of many Iranian girls who study in India. ⁽¹²⁾ Interestingly, most of these Iranians strongly believe in Islam and its way of life…! Anyway, the Islamic code of dress or Hijab varies throughout the Muslim world. In Iran, for instance, strict Hijab requirements are enacted in law, while in Muslim populated areas of India, social norms rather than state law dictate the wearing of Hijab. Westerners in particular, have often viewed such a veil as a sign of oppression of Muslim women. It has also been the cause of much debate, especially in Europe amid increasing immigration of Muslims; the 2006 United Kingdom debate over veils and the 2004 French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools are two notable examples. ⁽¹³⁾

Sixth, the status of women's testimony in Islam is also disputed. In this regard, Quran in sura Baghara, verse 282, says, “… when you deal with each other in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing… Get two witnesses out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as you choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them (women) mistakes, the other can remind her…” ⁽¹⁴⁾ Some jurists have held that certain types of testimony by women will not be accepted. In other cases, the testimony of two women can equal that of one man. The reason for this disparity has been explained in various manners, including women's lack of intelligence, women's temperament and sphere of interest, and sparing women from the burden of testifying, etc.⁽¹⁵⁾

Seventh, in regard with employment, women are allowed to work in Islam, subject to certain conditions. Islam recognizes that the society needs women to work for the sake of development. In general, women's right to work is subject to following conditions e.g. the work should not require woman to violate Islamic law (e.g., serving alcohol), and be mindful of woman's safety. If the work requires woman to leave her home, she must maintain her modesty. Her work should not affect more important commitments, such as those towards her family. Women are supposed to stay home and look after children. A woman whose husband doesn’t let her work cannot have a right to have a job. She is supposed to live on the money of her husband, or she needs her husband’s permission. A woman can work in house or working place of a stranger man on the way that Islam required, with several women or in an open place. There is no hindrance in this. ⁽¹⁶⁾ Even when women have the right to work and are educated, job opportunities may in practice be unequal compare to those of men. In Egypt, for example, women have limited opportunities to work in the private sector because women are still expected to put their role in the family first, which causes men to be seen as more reliable in the long term. ⁽¹⁷⁾ Anyway, patterns of women's employment vary throughout the Muslim world.

According to the Wikipedia, ‘on the issue of Islam and women,’ the only religious narration or (Hadis) relating to female political leadership is Sahih Bukhari 5:59:709, in which the prophet of Islam, is recorded, as saying that people with a female ruler will never be successful. Muslims generally regard the Bukhari collection as authentic. However, some classical Islamic scholars, such as al-Tabari, support female leadership. In early Islamic history, women including Aisha, Ume Warqa, and Samra Binte Wahaib took part in political activities. Likewise, in the past several decades, women have led several countries in which Muslims are a majority, including Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Turkey, have been led by women.

Many Muslim scholars and clerics hold that women don’t have a secondary importance and are valued equally (like men) in Islam, whereas, on the other hand, many non-Muslim scholars believe the otherwise. The latter group justifies its remarks by referring to a number of verses in Quran. For example, sura Nisa in this respect says, “Allah, thus, directs you as regards your children’s inheritance: to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half.”⁽¹⁸⁾ Or other verses such as, verse 223 of sura Baghara, which says, “your wives are as a tilt (plantation) for you; so approach your tilt when or how you (men) will…”. Such a straightforward literature, which is used by Quran for women have actually motivated many non-Muslim scholars believe Islam attacks the individuality of women. Apart from that on many cases, injustice against the rights of women, which is carried out in the name of Islam, has left a bad impression in the minds of many non-Muslims. Though a number of such affairs is resulted from misinterpretation of the Islamic teachings, they have degraded the image of Islam e.g. in Saudi Arabia women still are not allowed to drive, ⁽¹⁹⁾ or under the Taliban in Afghanistan girls were not allowed to go to school, ⁽²⁰⁾ whereas, none of these practices commanded by Quran and Islam. Unfortunately, these views remain very powerful within many Muslim communities such as rural areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. What matters is that if one accepts the first group’s justification, a question may then crop up: Critics of Islam hold if man and woman are treated by Islam equally, why then within the Islamic political systems or societies Muslim experts do not make laws pertaining to the equality of man and woman within the limits of Islam? Critics of Islam believe if it is so that Islam recognizes the liberty of men and women, then why don’t Islamic states go for constitutional and legal protections for individuality of human beings, which may not be overridden by cultural practices?

Today about 1 billion Muslims are spread over 40 predominantly Muslim countries and 5 continents, and their numbers are growing at a rate unmatched by that of any other religion in the world. Despite the political and ethnic diversity of Muslim countries, a core set of beliefs continues to provide the basis for a shared identity and affinity among Muslims. Yet, the radically different political, economic, and cultural conditions under which contemporary Muslims live make it difficult to identify what constitutes standard Islamic practice in the modern world. Many contemporary Muslims draw on the historical legacy of Islam as they confront the challenges of modernity. ⁽²¹⁾ In "Islam and Liberal Democracy" (February 1993), Bernard Lewis, a scholar of Near Eastern studies, took up the question of Islam's suitability for democratic rule. "Is it possible," he asked, "for the Islamic people to evolve a form of government that will be compatible with their own historical, cultural, and religious traditions and yet will bring individual freedom and human rights to the governed as these terms are understood in the free societies of the West?"

In fact, the issue with Islam is that it does give us freedom. Never Quran denies its followers individual liberty. Muslims are free to speak their minds, however, not beyond the principles of Islam. Art, politics, and literature, all should reflect the values of Islam, that is one of the most important themes of the Islamic ideology. In Islam there is a value for individualism, which I may refer to it as ‘Islamic individualism’ that cannot be compatible with the western individualism, because freedom in the domain of western individualism and freedom in the domain of natural liberty is in contrast with the freedom which exists in the Islamic domain --- such a freedom can violate the Islamic principles.

As students of philosophy, we all know that individualism is about the ideas of right to think freely, freedom from captivity, and power of free choice. Every human being should know how to live individually. Every man/woman holds a particular belief, which others have to respect and honor it. Individualism is the idea that the individual should be allowed to shape his or her own destiny, without having government interfering and deciding on their behalf what is in their interests. ⁽²²⁾ However, it should be noted that individualists do not necessarily subscribe to the doctrine of egoism, ⁽²³⁾ which regard self-interest as the only logical human motivation. They may instead be guided in political and economic thinking by motives of altruism, ⁽²⁴⁾ holding that the end of social, political, and economic organization is the greatest good for the greatest number. Individualists believe that the duties and responsibilities of a state are to protect life and property, to put down robbery and fraud, to enforce contracts, to maintain peace and order, to punish criminals, and to protect the state from foreign invasion. ⁽²⁵⁾

Now, in order to conclude our debate, I would like to raise a question, to what extent then Islamic form of individualism and western form of individualism can tolerate each other?

Islam originally belongs to the Arab society of 1400 years ago. Islam brought about some changes and reformed the old Arab society and since then the teachings of this institution remained the same, but not for the same Arab society rather for many subsequent generations of different cultures like the Iranians. On the other hand, human thinking faculty is not static rather is gradually changing, a natural process, which is unavoidable. People adopt new ideas, and these ideas ultimately can get mobilized and appear as a strong force against the status quo, which may devastate the status quo if that does not update itself in time. The existing contradictions between natural liberty and Islamic liberty may reach to its peak. When contradictions between these two institutions become intense, naturally but not deliberately, one can overtake the other and lead the way. Otherwise, what makes an Iranian Muslim woman wear non-Islamic dress, while theoretically believes in the principles of Islam. Shirin Ebadi a noble prize holder and Golshifteh Farahani an Iranian actress, who recently traveled to Hollywood, can be taken as two notable recent examples. Can’t it be considered as a clash between natural liberty and Islamic liberty!? In our contemporary world, there are many Muslims who practically do not follow the principles of Islam; many drink alcohol, which is prohibited by Islam. Many practice/commit fornication, which is against the Islamic code, and many have mixed the Islamic way of teaching with their own style of thinking and have projected it as the true form of Islam.

Therefore, Muslim scholars and philosophers have a vital social obligation to update the Islamic teachings. This will be for the benefit of both Islam and Muslims. For human beings rigid laws cannot exist because their mental set up is not rigid. Islam should not be associated with politics (though Islam and politics have been inseparable) because sometimes politics turns into a dirty business. Christians understood this fact centuries back and thus separated church from state, that is what, which saved Christianity from character-assassination, a phenomenon which today, every so often, Islam comes under attack from various directions… Thank you very much for your attention. 

A Seminar On Freedom: October 15, 16, 2008; Professor Daya Krishna Memorial Seminar; Department of Philosophy; University of Pune. M.A., M.Phil, PhD., students, as well as, professors of the department, and two professors from English and politics departments attended the seminar. In this seminar 19 students of philosophy presented their lectures.

www.ahmadrezataheri.org

Notes & References

(1) Concept of liberty has developed mainly in modern times, which is closely associated with the philosophy of individualism.

(2) V. D. Mahajan, Political Theory (fourth Edition 1988, S. Chand & Company LTD), p. 347.

(3) For more on the issue, see, M. Ahmad Qaderi & M. Abdullah Qaderi; The Concept of Islamic State: Theory & Practice; Journal of Social sciences & Humanities; Faculty of Arts, University of Karachi, Vol. 1 & 2, 1996 – 2000, p. 54.

(4) Kim R. Holmes, Ph.D., is Vice President for For­eign and Defense Policy Studies and Director of the Kathryn and Shelby Cullom Davis Institute for Interna­tional Studies at The Heritage Foundation. He delivered these remarks at a discussion of "Notions of Liberty in Islam" at The Heritage Foundation.

(5) Sura Baghara; Quran. Verse 256; Tafsir-e Noor; Mostafa Khoram Del; Tehran 1374, p. 44. Also, see, the verse 99 of Sura Younes in Quran.

(6) Sura Imran; Quran. Verse 178; The Holy Quran; Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali; Birmingham, UK, p. 56. Also, see, sura Nisa, verse 14 in Quran.

(7) Sura Haj, verses 51 and 57 of the Quran.

(8) The intention is not to defend western concept of liberty and oppose Islamic concept of liberty; Ahmad Reza Taheri. 

(9) Sura Nisa, verse.3; Quran. Quran-e Mobin, Tarjomeh, Touzih, va Tafsir-e feshordeh Quran b Quran; Mohandes Ali Akbar Taheri Ghazvini-e; Entesharat-e Ghalam, p. 77. 

(10) In India (2004-2005), around 850 educated foreign Muslim girls and women answered to the question in a questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed among them and the question asked was “If they agree with polygamy?” 100% of them answered negatively. When they were again asked that polygamy is a religious edict and is permitted to the men by Quran, then, few changed their stance and reluctantly accepted the divine (as is referred by Muslims) edict and some others had no a say. Ahmad Reza Taheri.   

(11) Sura Baghara of Quran; Verse 230.  The Glorious Quran; Text & Explanatory Translation by Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall; p. 35.

(12) There are around 4000 Iranian students only in Pune of India. Many Iranian girls who enter India and pursue their studies do not dress according to the Islamic code. However, most of them strongly believe in Islam and its teachings; Ahmad Reza Taheri.  

(13) For more on women and Islam, see, www. en.wikepedia.org/wiki/women and Islam.

(14) Sura Baghara, verse 282 of the Quran.

(15) See, www. en.wikepedia.org/wiki/women and Islam

(16) El-Fıkıh 'ala'l-Mezahip el-Arbaa, c.3 s.125.

(17) See, www. en.wikepedia.org/wiki/women and Islam

(18) Sura Nisa of the Quran. Verse 11, sura Nisa, The Holy Quran; Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali; Birmingham, UK, p. 61.

(19) For more on women rights and stories of women rights violation, see, The Princess, authored by Jean Sasson; Bantam Books, 1993. 

(20) For more on Taliban’s violation of human rights, see, www.wikipedia.org/Taliban. Taliban allowed and in some cases encouraged marriage for girls under the age of 16. Amnesty International reported that 80 percent of Afghan marriages were considered to be by force. In October 1996, a woman had the tip of her thumb cut off for wearing nail varnish. In December 1996, Radio Sharia announced that 225 Kabuli women had been seized and punished for violating the Islamic code of dress. A tribunal handed down the sentence and the women were lashed on their legs and backs for their misdemeanor. In March 1997, a married woman, from Laghman Province, was caught attempting to flee the district with another man. The Islamic tribunal found her guilty of adultery and condemned both her and her lover to death by stoning.

(21) Ahmad.  S.  Dallal; Microsoft ® Encarta ® Reference Library 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation.

(22) For more on individualism, see, www.thevoter.org/glossary.

(23) Egoism is a doctrine or attitude that one's own interests are of greater importance than any other consideration or thing.

(24) Altruism means devotion to the welfare of others. It is the English form of the French word altruisme created by the 19th-century French philosopher and sociologist Auguste Comte from the Italian word altrui, meaning “of or to others.” The word has gradually come into more general use. In philosophy altruism describes a theory of conduct that aspires to the good of others as the ultimate end for any moral action. In theories of ethics altruism is the antithesis of egoism (self-interest).

(25) B. K. Gokhale; Political Science; Himalaya Publishing House (2007), p. 271.